pg_clickhouse 0.1.6
===================

## Synopsis

```sql
CREATE EXTENSION pg_clickhouse;
```

## Description

This library contains PostgreSQL extension that enables remote query execution
on ClickHouse databases, including a [foreign data wrapper]. It supports
PostgreSQL 13 and higher and ClickHouse 23 and higher.

## Getting Started

The simplest way to try pg_clickhouse is the [Docker image], which contains
the standard PostgreSQL Docker image with the pg_clickhouse extension:

```sh
docker run --name pg_clickhouse -e POSTGRES_PASSWORD=my_pass \
       -d ghcr.io/clickhouse/pg_clickhouse:18
docker exec -it pg_clickhouse psql -U postgres
```

See the [tutorial](tutorial.md) to get started importing ClickHouse tables and
pushing down queries.

## Usage

```sql
CREATE EXTENSION pg_clickhouse;
CREATE SERVER taxi_srv FOREIGN DATA WRAPPER clickhouse_fdw
       OPTIONS(driver 'binary', host 'localhost', dbname 'taxi');
CREATE USER MAPPING FOR CURRENT_USER SERVER taxi_srv
       OPTIONS (user 'default');
CREATE SCHEMA taxi;
IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA taxi FROM SERVER taxi_srv INTO taxi;
```

## Documentation

*   [Installation](../README.md)
*   [Tutorial](doc/tutorial.md)

## Versioning Policy

pg_clickhouse adheres to [Semantic Versioning] for its public releases.

*   The major version increments for API changes
*   The minor version increments for backward compatible SQL changes
*   The patch version increments for binary-only changes

Once installed, PostgreSQL tracks two variations of the version:

*   The library version (defined by `PG_MODULE_MAGIC` on PostgreSQL 18 and
    higher) includes the full semantic version, visible in the output of the
    `pg_get_loaded_modules()` function.
*   The extension version (defined in the control file) includes only the
    major and minor versions, visible in the `pg_catalog.pg_extension` table,
    the output of the `pg_available_extension_versions()` function, and `\dx
    pg_clickhouse`.

In practice this means that a release that increments the patch version, e.g.
from `v0.1.0` to `v0.1.1`, benefits all databases that have loaded `v0.1` and
do not need to run `ALTER EXTENSION` to benefit from the upgrade.

A release that increments the minor or major versions, on the other hand, will
be accompanied by SQL upgrade scripts, and all existing database that contain
the extension must run `ALTER EXTENSION pg_clickhouse UPDATE` to benefit from
the upgrade.

## DDL SQL Reference

The following SQL [DDL] expressions use pg_clickhouse.

### CREATE EXTENSION

Use [CREATE EXTENSION] to add pg_clickhouse to a database:

```sql
CREATE EXTENSION pg_clickhouse;
```

Use `WITH SCHEMA` to install it into a specific schema (recommended):

```sql
CREATE SCHEMA ch;
CREATE EXTENSION pg_clickhouse WITH SCHEMA ch;
```

### ALTER EXTENSION

Use [ALTER EXTENSION] to change pg_clickhouse. Examples:

*   After installing a new release of pg_clickhouse, use the `UPDATE` clause:

    ```sql
    ALTER EXTENSION pg_clickhouse UPDATE;
    ```

*   Use `SET SCHEMA` to move the extension to a new schema:

    ```sql
    CREATE SCHEMA ch;
    ALTER EXTENSION pg_clickhouse SET SCHEMA ch;
    ```

### DROP EXTENSION

Use [DROP EXTENSION] to remove pg_clickhouse from a database:

```sql
DROP EXTENSION pg_clickhouse;
```

This command fails if there are any objects that depend on pg_clickhouse. Use
the `CASCADE` clause to drop them, too:

```sql
DROP EXTENSION pg_clickhouse CASCADE;
```

### CREATE SERVER

Use [CREATE SERVER] to create a foreign server that connects to a ClickHouse
server. Example:

```sql
CREATE SERVER taxi_srv FOREIGN DATA WRAPPER clickhouse_fdw
       OPTIONS(driver 'binary', host 'localhost', dbname 'taxi');
```

The supported options are:

*   `driver`: The ClickHouse connection driver to use, either "binary" or
    "http". **Required.**
*   `dbname`: The ClickHouse database to use upon connecting. Defaults to
    "default".
*   `host`: The host name of the ClickHouse server. Defaults to "localhost";
*   `port`: The port to connect to on the ClickHouse server. Defaults as
    follows:
    *   9440 if `driver` is "binary" and `host` is a ClickHouse Cloud host
    *   9004 if `driver` is "binary" and `host` is not a ClickHouse Cloud host
    *   8443 if `driver` is "http" and `host` is a ClickHouse Cloud host
    *   8123 if `driver` is "http" and `host` is not a ClickHouse Cloud host

### ALTER SERVER

Use [ALTER SERVER] to change a foreign server. Example:

```sql
ALTER SERVER taxi_srv OPTIONS (SET driver 'http');
```

The options are the same as for [CREATE SERVER](#create-server).

### DROP SERVER

Use [DROP SERVER] to remove a foreign server:

```sql
DROP SERVER taxi_srv;
```

This command fails if any other objects depend on the server. Use `CASCADE` to
also drop those dependencies:

```sql
DROP SERVER taxi_srv CASCADE;
```

### CREATE USER MAPPING

Use [CREATE USER MAPPING] to map a PostgreSQL user to a ClickHouse user. For
example, to map the current PostgreSQL user to the remote ClickHouse user when
connecting with the `taxi_srv` foreign server:

```sql
CREATE USER MAPPING FOR CURRENT_USER SERVER taxi_srv
       OPTIONS (user 'demo');
```

The The supported options are:

*   `user`: The name of the ClickHouse user. Defaults to "default".
*   `password`: The password of the ClickHouse user.

### ALTER USER MAPPING

Use [ALTER USER MAPPING] to change the definition of a user mapping:

```sql
ALTER USER MAPPING FOR CURRENT_USER SERVER taxi_srv
       OPTIONS (SET user 'default');
```

The options are the same as for [CREATE USER MAPPING](#create-user-mapping).

### DROP USER MAPPING

Use [DROP USER MAPPING] to remove a user mapping:

```sql
DROP USER MAPPING FOR CURRENT_USER SERVER taxi_srv;
```

### IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA

Use [IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA] to import all the tables defines in a ClickHouse
database as foreign tables into a PostgreSQL schema:

```sql
CREATE SCHEMA taxi;
IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA demo FROM SERVER taxi_srv INTO taxi;
```

Use `LIMIT TO` to limit the import to specific tables:

```sql
IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA demo LIMIT TO (trips) FROM SERVER taxi_srv INTO taxi;
```

Use `EXCEPT` to exclude tables:

```sql
IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA demo EXCEPT (users) FROM SERVER taxi_srv INTO taxi;
```

pg_clickhouse will fetch a list of all the tables in the specified ClickHouse
database ("demo" in the above examples), fetch column definitions for each,
and execute [CREATE FOREIGN TABLE](#create-foreign-table) commands to create
the foreign tables. Columns will be defined using the [supported data
types](#data-types) and, were detectible, the options supported by [CREATE
FOREIGN TABLE](#create-foreign-table).

> **⚠️ Imported Identifier Case Preservation**
>
> `IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA` runs `quote_identifier()` on the table and column
> names it imports, which double-quotes identifiers with uppercase characters
> or blank spaces. Such table and column names thus must be double-quoted in
> PostgreSQL queries. Names with all lowercase and no blank space characters
> do not need to be quoted.
>
> For example, given this ClickHouse table:
>
> ```sql
> CREATE OR REPLACE TABLE test
> (
>     id UInt64,
>     Name TEXT,
>     updatedAt DateTime DEFAULT now()
> )
> ENGINE = MergeTree
> ORDER BY id;
> ```
>
> `IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA` creates this foreign table:
>
> ```sql
> CREATE TABLE test
> (
>     id          BIGINT      NOT NULL,
>     "Name"      TEXT        NOT NULL,
>     "updatedAt" TIMESTAMPTZ NOT NULL
> );
> ```
>
> Queries therefore must quote appropriately, e.g.,
>
> ```sql
> SELECT id, "Name", "updatedAt" FROM test;
> ```
>
> To create objects with different names or all lowercase (and therefore
> case-insensitive) names, use [CREATE FOREIGN TABLE](#create-foreign-table).

### CREATE FOREIGN TABLE

Use [CREATE FOREIGN TABLE] to create a foreign table that can query data from
a ClickHouse database:

```sql
CREATE FOREIGN TABLE uact (
    user_id    bigint NOT NULL,
    page_views int,
    duration   smallint,
    sign       smallint
) SERVER taxi_srv OPTIONS(
    table_name 'uact',
    engine 'CollapsingMergeTree'
);
```

The supported table options are:

*   `database`: The name of the remote database. Defaults to the database
    defined for the foreign server.
*   `table_name`: The name of the remote table. Default to the name specified
    for the foreign table.
*   `engine`: The [table engine] used by the ClickHouse table. For
    `CollapsingMergeTree()` and `AggregatingMergeTree()`, pg_clickhouse
    automatically applies the parameters to function expressions executed on
    the table.

Use the [data type](#data-types) appropriate for the remote ClickHouse data
type of each column. For [AggregateFunction Type] and [SimpleAggregateFunction
Type] columns, map the data type to the ClickHouse type passed to the function
and specify the name of the aggregate function via the appropriate column
option:

*   `AggregateFunction`: The name of the aggregate function applied to an
    [AggregateFunction Type] column
*   `SimpleAggregateFunction`: The name of the aggregate function applied to
    an [SimpleAggregateFunction Type] column

Example:

(aggregatefunction 'sum')

```sql
CREATE FOREIGN TABLE test (
    column1 bigint  OPTIONS(AggregateFunction 'uniq'),
    column2 integer OPTIONS(AggregateFunction 'anyIf'),
    column3 bigint  OPTIONS(AggregateFunction 'quantiles(0.5, 0.9)')
) SERVER clickhouse_srv;
```

For columns with the `AggregateFunction` function, pg_clickhouse will
automatically append `Merge` to an aggregate function evaluating the column.

### ALTER FOREIGN TABLE

Use [ALTER FOREIGN TABLE] to change the definition of a foreign table:

```sql
ALTER TABLE table ALTER COLUMN b OPTIONS (SET AggregateFunction 'count');
```

The supported table and column options are the same as for [CREATE FOREIGN
TABLE].

### DROP FOREIGN TABLE

Use [DROP FOREIGN TABLE] to remove a foreign table:

```sql
DROP FOREIGN TABLE uact;
```

This command fails if there are any objects that depend on the foreign table.
Use the `CASCADE` clause to drop them, too:

```sql
DROP FOREIGN TABLE uact CASCADE;
```

## DML SQL Reference

The SQL [DML] expressions below may use pg_clickhouse. Examples depend on
these ClickHouse tables, created by [make-logs.sql](make-logs.sql):

```sql
CREATE TABLE logs (
    req_id    Int64 NOT NULL,
    start_at   DateTime64(6, 'UTC') NOT NULL,
    duration  Int32 NOT NULL,
    resource  Text  NOT NULL,
    method    Enum8('GET' = 1, 'HEAD', 'POST', 'PUT', 'DELETE', 'CONNECT', 'OPTIONS', 'TRACE', 'PATCH', 'QUERY') NOT NULL,
    node_id   Int64 NOT NULL,
    response  Int32 NOT NULL
) ENGINE = MergeTree
  ORDER BY start_at;

CREATE TABLE nodes (
    node_id Int64 NOT NULL,
    name    Text  NOT NULL,
    region  Text  NOT NULL,
    arch    Text  NOT NULL,
    os      Text  NOT NULL
) ENGINE = MergeTree
  PRIMARY KEY node_id;
```

### EXPLAIN

The [EXPLAIN] command works as expected, but the `VERBOSE` option triggers the
ClickHouse "Remote SQL" query to be emitted:

```pgsql
try=# EXPLAIN (VERBOSE)
       SELECT resource, avg(duration) AS average_duration
         FROM logs
        GROUP BY resource;
                                     QUERY PLAN
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Foreign Scan  (cost=1.00..5.10 rows=1000 width=64)
   Output: resource, (avg(duration))
   Relations: Aggregate on (logs)
   Remote SQL: SELECT resource, avg(duration) FROM "default".logs GROUP BY resource
(4 rows)
```

This query pushes down to ClickHouse via a "Foreign Scan" plan node, the
remote SQL.

### SELECT

Use the [SELECT] statement to execute queries on pg_clickhouse tables just
like any other tables:

```pgsql
try=# SELECT start_at, duration, resource FROM logs WHERE req_id = 4117909262;
          start_at          | duration |    resource
----------------------------+----------+----------------
 2025-12-05 15:07:32.944188 |      175 | /widgets/totam
(1 row)
```

pg_clickhouse works to push query execution down to ClickHouse as much as
possible, including aggregate functions. Use [EXPLAIN](#explain) to determine
the pushdown extent. For the above query, for example, all execution is pushed
down to ClickHouse

```pgsql
try=# EXPLAIN (VERBOSE, COSTS OFF)
       SELECT start_at, duration, resource FROM logs WHERE req_id = 4117909262;
                                             QUERY PLAN
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Foreign Scan on public.logs
   Output: start_at, duration, resource
   Remote SQL: SELECT start_at, duration, resource FROM "default".logs WHERE ((req_id = 4117909262))
(3 rows)
```

pg_clickhouse also pushes down JOINs to tables that are from the same remote
server:

```pgsql
try=# EXPLAIN (ANALYZE, VERBOSE)
       SELECT name, count(*), round(avg(duration))
         FROM logs
         LEFT JOIN nodes on logs.node_id = nodes.node_id
        GROUP BY name;
                                                                                  QUERY PLAN
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Foreign Scan  (cost=1.00..5.10 rows=1000 width=72) (actual time=3.201..3.221 rows=8.00 loops=1)
   Output: nodes.name, (count(*)), (round(avg(logs.duration), 0))
   Relations: Aggregate on ((logs) LEFT JOIN (nodes))
   Remote SQL: SELECT r2.name, count(*), round(avg(r1.duration), 0) FROM  "default".logs r1 ALL LEFT JOIN "default".nodes r2 ON (((r1.node_id = r2.node_id))) GROUP BY r2.name
   FDW Time: 0.086 ms
 Planning Time: 0.335 ms
 Execution Time: 3.261 ms
(7 rows)
```

Joining with a local table will generate less efficient queries without
careful tuning. In this example, we make a local copy of the
`nodes` table and join to it instead of the remote table:

```pgsql
try=# CREATE TABLE local_nodes AS SELECT * FROM nodes;
SELECT 8

try=# EXPLAIN (ANALYZE, VERBOSE)
       SELECT name, count(*), round(avg(duration))
         FROM logs
         LEFT JOIN local_nodes on logs.node_id = local_nodes.node_id
        GROUP BY name;
                                                             QUERY PLAN
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 HashAggregate  (cost=147.65..150.65 rows=200 width=72) (actual time=6.215..6.235 rows=8.00 loops=1)
   Output: local_nodes.name, count(*), round(avg(logs.duration), 0)
   Group Key: local_nodes.name
   Batches: 1  Memory Usage: 32kB
   Buffers: shared hit=1
   ->  Hash Left Join  (cost=31.02..129.28 rows=2450 width=36) (actual time=2.202..5.125 rows=1000.00 loops=1)
         Output: local_nodes.name, logs.duration
         Hash Cond: (logs.node_id = local_nodes.node_id)
         Buffers: shared hit=1
         ->  Foreign Scan on public.logs  (cost=10.00..20.00 rows=1000 width=12) (actual time=2.089..3.779 rows=1000.00 loops=1)
               Output: logs.req_id, logs.start_at, logs.duration, logs.resource, logs.method, logs.node_id, logs.response
               Remote SQL: SELECT duration, node_id FROM "default".logs
               FDW Time: 1.447 ms
         ->  Hash  (cost=14.90..14.90 rows=490 width=40) (actual time=0.090..0.091 rows=8.00 loops=1)
               Output: local_nodes.name, local_nodes.node_id
               Buckets: 1024  Batches: 1  Memory Usage: 9kB
               Buffers: shared hit=1
               ->  Seq Scan on public.local_nodes  (cost=0.00..14.90 rows=490 width=40) (actual time=0.069..0.073 rows=8.00 loops=1)
                     Output: local_nodes.name, local_nodes.node_id
                     Buffers: shared hit=1
 Planning:
   Buffers: shared hit=14
 Planning Time: 0.551 ms
 Execution Time: 6.589 ms
```

In this case, we can push more of the aggregation down to ClickHouse by
grouping on `node_id` instead of the local column, and then join
to the lookup table later:

```sql
try=# EXPLAIN (ANALYZE, VERBOSE)
       WITH remote AS (
           SELECT node_id, count(*), round(avg(duration))
             FROM logs
            GROUP BY node_id
       )
       SELECT name, remote.count, remote.round
         FROM remote
         JOIN local_nodes
           ON remote.node_id = local_nodes.node_id
        ORDER BY name;
                                                          QUERY PLAN
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Sort  (cost=65.68..66.91 rows=490 width=72) (actual time=4.480..4.484 rows=8.00 loops=1)
   Output: local_nodes.name, remote.count, remote.round
   Sort Key: local_nodes.name
   Sort Method: quicksort  Memory: 25kB
   Buffers: shared hit=4
   ->  Hash Join  (cost=27.60..43.79 rows=490 width=72) (actual time=4.406..4.422 rows=8.00 loops=1)
         Output: local_nodes.name, remote.count, remote.round
         Inner Unique: true
         Hash Cond: (local_nodes.node_id = remote.node_id)
         Buffers: shared hit=1
         ->  Seq Scan on public.local_nodes  (cost=0.00..14.90 rows=490 width=40) (actual time=0.010..0.016 rows=8.00 loops=1)
               Output: local_nodes.node_id, local_nodes.name, local_nodes.region, local_nodes.arch, local_nodes.os
               Buffers: shared hit=1
         ->  Hash  (cost=15.10..15.10 rows=1000 width=48) (actual time=4.379..4.381 rows=8.00 loops=1)
               Output: remote.count, remote.round, remote.node_id
               Buckets: 1024  Batches: 1  Memory Usage: 9kB
               ->  Subquery Scan on remote  (cost=1.00..15.10 rows=1000 width=48) (actual time=4.337..4.360 rows=8.00 loops=1)
                     Output: remote.count, remote.round, remote.node_id
                     ->  Foreign Scan  (cost=1.00..5.10 rows=1000 width=48) (actual time=4.330..4.349 rows=8.00 loops=1)
                           Output: logs.node_id, (count(*)), (round(avg(logs.duration), 0))
                           Relations: Aggregate on (logs)
                           Remote SQL: SELECT node_id, count(*), round(avg(duration), 0) FROM "default".logs GROUP BY node_id
                           FDW Time: 0.055 ms
 Planning:
   Buffers: shared hit=5
 Planning Time: 0.319 ms
 Execution Time: 4.562 ms
 ```

 The "Foreign Scan" node now pushes down aggregation by `node_id`, reducing
 the number of rows that must be pulled back into Postgres from 1000 (all of
 them) to just 8, one for each node.

### PREPARE, EXECUTE, DEALLOCATE

 As of v0.1.2, pg_clickhouse supports parameterized queries, mainly created
 by the [PREPARE] command:

```pgsql
try=# PREPARE avg_durations_between_dates(date, date) AS
       SELECT date(start_at), round(avg(duration)) AS average_duration
         FROM logs
        WHERE date(start_at) BETWEEN $1 AND $2
        GROUP BY date(start_at)
        ORDER BY date(start_at);
PREPARE
```

Use [EXECUTE] as usual to execute a prepared statement:

```pgsql
try=# EXECUTE avg_durations_between_dates('2025-12-09', '2025-12-13');
    date    | average_duration
------------+------------------
 2025-12-09 |              190
 2025-12-10 |              194
 2025-12-11 |              197
 2025-12-12 |              190
 2025-12-13 |              195
(5 rows)
```

> [!WARNING]
> Parameterized execution prevents the [http driver](#create-server) from
> properly converting DateTime time zones on ClickHouse versions prior to
> 25.8, when the [underlying bug] was [fixed]. Note that sometimes PostgreSQL
> will use a parameterized query plan even without using `PREPARE`. For any
> queries on that require accurate time zone conversion, and where upgrading
> to 25.8 or later is not an option, use the [binary driver](#create-server),
> instead.

pg_clickhouse pushes down the aggregations, as usual, as seen in the
[EXPLAIN](#explain) verbose output:

```pgsql
try=# EXPLAIN (VERBOSE) EXECUTE avg_durations_between_dates('2025-12-09', '2025-12-13');
                                                                                                            QUERY PLAN
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Foreign Scan  (cost=1.00..5.10 rows=1000 width=36)
   Output: (date(start_at)), (round(avg(duration), 0))
   Relations: Aggregate on (logs)
   Remote SQL: SELECT date(start_at), round(avg(duration), 0) FROM "default".logs WHERE ((date(start_at) >= '2025-12-09')) AND ((date(start_at) <= '2025-12-13')) GROUP BY (date(start_at)) ORDER BY date(start_at) ASC NULLS LAST
(4 rows)
```

Note that it has sent the full date values, not the parameter placeholders.
This holds for the first five requests, as described in the PostgreSQL
[PREPARE notes]. On the sixth execution, it sends ClickHouse
`{param:type}`-style [query parameters]:
parameters:

```pgsql
                                                                                                         QUERY PLAN
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Foreign Scan  (cost=1.00..5.10 rows=1000 width=36)
   Output: (date(start_at)), (round(avg(duration), 0))
   Relations: Aggregate on (logs)
   Remote SQL: SELECT date(start_at), round(avg(duration), 0) FROM "default".logs WHERE ((date(start_at) >= {p1:Date})) AND ((date(start_at) <= {p2:Date})) GROUP BY (date(start_at)) ORDER BY date(start_at) ASC NULLS LAST
(4 rows)
```

Use [DEALLOCATE] to deallocate a prepared statement:

```pgsql
try=# DEALLOCATE avg_durations_between_dates;
DEALLOCATE
```

### INSERT

Use the [INSERT] command to insert values into a remote ClickHouse table:

```pgsql
try=# INSERT INTO nodes(node_id, name, region, arch, os)
VALUES (9,  'Augustin Gamarra', 'us-west-2', 'amd64', 'Linux')
     , (10, 'Cerisier', 'us-east-2', 'amd64', 'Linux')
     , (11, 'Dewalt', 'use-central-1', 'arm64', 'macOS')
;
INSERT 0 3
```

### COPY

Use the [COPY] command to insert a batch of rows into a remote ClickHouse
table:

```pgsql
try=# COPY logs FROM stdin CSV;
4285871863,2025-12-05 11:13:58.360760,206,/widgets,POST,8,401
4020882978,2025-12-05 11:33:48.248450,199,/users/1321945,HEAD,3,200
3231273177,2025-12-05 12:20:42.158575,220,/search,GET,2,201
\.
>> COPY 3
```

> **⚠️ Batch API Limitations**
>
> pg_clickhouse has not yet implemented support for the PostgreSQL FDW batch
> insert API. Thus [COPY] currently uses [INSERT](#insert) statements to
> insert records. This will be improved in a future release.

### LOAD

Use [LOAD] to load the pg_clickhouse shared library:

```pgsql
try=# LOAD 'pg_clickhouse';
LOAD
```

It's not normally necessary to use [LOAD], as Postgres will automatically load
pg_clickhouse the first time any of of its features (functions, foreign
tables, etc.) are used.

The one time it may be useful to [LOAD] pg_clickhouse is to [SET](#set)
pg_clickhouse parameters before executing queries that depend on them.

### SET

Use [SET] to set the the `pg_clickhouse.session_settings` runtime parameter.
This parameter configures [ClickHouse settings] to be set on subsequent
queries. Example:

```sql
SET pg_clickhouse.session_settings = 'join_use_nulls 1, final 1';
```

The default is `join_use_nulls 1, group_by_use_nulls 1, final 1`. Set it to an
empty string to fall back on the ClickHouse server's settings.

```sql
SET pg_clickhouse.session_settings = '';
```

The syntax is a comma-delimited list of key/value pairs separated by one or
more spaces. Keys must correspond to [ClickHouse settings]. Escape spaces,
commas, and backslashes in values with a backslash:

```sql
SET pg_clickhouse.session_settings = 'join_algorithm grace_hash\,hash';
```

Or use single quoted values to avoid escaping spaces and commas; consider
using [dollar quoting] to avoid the need to double-quote:

```sql
SET pg_clickhouse.session_settings = $$join_algorithm 'grace_hash,hash'$$;
```

If you care about legibility and need to set many settings, use multiple
lines, for example:

```sql
SET pg_clickhouse.session_settings TO $$
    connect_timeout 2,
    count_distinct_implementation uniq,
    final 1,
    group_by_use_nulls 1,
    join_algorithm 'prefer_partial_merge',
    join_use_nulls 1,
    log_queries_min_type QUERY_FINISH,
    max_block_size 32768,
    max_execution_time 45,
    max_result_rows 1024,
    metrics_perf_events_list 'this,that',
    network_compression_method ZSTD,
    poll_interval 5,
    totals_mode after_having_auto
$$;
```

Some settings will be ignored in cases where they would interfere with the
operation of pg_clickhouse itself. These include:

*   `date_time_output_format`: the http driver requires it to be "iso"
*   `format_tsv_null_representation`: the http driver requires the default
*   `output_format_tsv_crlf_end_of_line` the http driver requires the default

Otherwise, pg_clickhouse does not validate the settings, but passes them on to
ClickHouse for every query. It thus supports all settings for each ClickHouse
version.

Note that pg_clickhouse must be loaded before setting
`pg_clickhouse.session_settings`; either use [shared library preloading] or
simply use one of the objects in the extension to ensure it loads.

### ALTER ROLE

Use [ALTER ROLE]'s `SET` command to [preload](#preloading) pg_clickhouse
and/or [SET](#set) its parameters for specific roles:

```pgsql
try=# ALTER ROLE CURRENT_USER SET session_preload_libraries = pg_clickhouse;
ALTER ROLE

try=# ALTER ROLE CURRENT_USER SET pg_clickhouse.session_settings = 'final 1';
ALTER ROLE
```

Use the [ALTER ROLE]'s `RESET` command to reset pg_clickhouse preloading
and/or parameters:

```pgsql
try=# ALTER ROLE CURRENT_USER RESET session_preload_libraries;
ALTER ROLE

try=# ALTER ROLE CURRENT_USER RESET pg_clickhouse.session_settings;
ALTER ROLE
```

## Preloading

If every or nearly every Postgres connection needs to use pg_clickhouse,
consider using [shared library preloading] to automatically load it:

### `session_preload_libraries`

Loads the shared library for every new connection to PostgreSQL:

```ini
session_preload_libraries = pg_clickhouse
```

Useful to take advantage of updates without restarting the server: just
reconnect. May also be set for specific users or roles via [ALTER
ROLE](#alter-role).

### `shared_preload_libraries`

Loads the shared library into the PostgreSQL parent process at startup time:

```ini
shared_preload_libraries = pg_clickhouse
```

Useful to save memory and load overhead for every session, but requires the
cluster to be restart when the library is updated.

## Data Types

pg_clickhouse maps the following ClickHouse data types to PostgreSQL data
types. [IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA](#import-foreign-schema) use the first type in
the PostgreSQL column when importing columns; additional types may be used in
[CREATE FOREIGN TABLE](#create-foreign-table) statements:

| ClickHouse |    PostgreSQL    |             Notes             |
|------------|------------------|-------------------------------|
| Bool       | boolean          |                               |
| Date       | date             |                               |
| Date32     | date             |                               |
| DateTime   | timestamptz      |                               |
| Decimal    | numeric          |                               |
| Float32    | real             |                               |
| Float64    | double precision |                               |
| IPv4       | inet             |                               |
| IPv6       | inet             |                               |
| Int16      | smallint         |                               |
| Int32      | integer          |                               |
| Int64      | bigint           |                               |
| Int8       | smallint         |                               |
| JSON       | jsonb            | HTTP engine only              |
| String     | text, bytea      |                               |
| UInt16     | integer          |                               |
| UInt32     | bigint           |                               |
| UInt64     | bigint           | Errors on values > BIGINT max |
| UInt8      | smallint         |                               |
| UUID       | uuid             |                               |

Additional notes and details follow.

### BYTEA

ClickHouse does not provide the equivalent of the PostgreSQL [BYTEA] type, but
allows any bytes to be stored in [String] type. In general ClickHouse strings
should be mapped to the PostgreSQL [TEXT], but when using binary data, map it
to [BYTEA]. Example:

```sql
-- Create clickHouse table with String columns.
SELECT clickhouse_raw_query($$
    CREATE TABLE bytes (
	      c1 Int8, c2 String, c3 String
    ) ENGINE = MergeTree ORDER BY (c1);
$$);

-- Create foreign table with BYTEA columns.
CREATE FOREIGN TABLE bytes (
    c1 int,
    c2 BYTEA,
    c3 BYTEA
) SERVER ch_srv OPTIONS( table_name 'bytes' );

-- Insert binary data into the foreign table.
INSERT INTO bytes
SELECT n, sha224(bytea('val'||n)), decode(md5('int'||n), 'hex')
  FROM generate_series(1, 4) n;

-- View the results.
SELECT * FROM bytes;
```

That final `SELECT` query will output:

```pgsql
 c1 |                             c2                             |                 c3
----+------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------
  1 | \x1bf7f0cc821d31178616a55a8e0c52677735397cdde6f4153a9fd3d7 | \xae3b28cde02542f81acce8783245430d
  2 | \x5f6e9e12cd8592712e638016f4b1a2e73230ee40db498c0f0b1dc841 | \x23e7c6cacb8383f878ad093b0027d72b
  3 | \x53ac2c1fa83c8f64603fe9568d883331007d6281de330a4b5e728f9e | \x7e969132fc656148b97b6a2ee8bc83c1
  4 | \x4e3c2e4cb7542a45173a8dac939ddc4bc75202e342ebc769b0f5da2f | \x8ef30f44c65480d12b650ab6b2b04245
(4 rows)
```

Note that if there are any nul bytes in the ClickHouse columns, a foreign
table using [TEXT] columns will not output the proper values:

```sql
-- Create foreign table with TEXT columns.
CREATE FOREIGN TABLE texts (
    c1 int,
    c2 TEXT,
    c3 TEXT
) SERVER ch_srv OPTIONS( table_name 'bytes' );

-- Encode binary data as hex.
SELECT c1, encode(c2::bytea, 'hex'), encode(c3::bytea, 'hex') FROM texts ORDER BY c1;
```

Will output:

```pgsql
 c1 |                          encode                          |              encode
----+----------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------
  1 | 1bf7f0cc821d31178616a55a8e0c52677735397cdde6f4153a9fd3d7 | ae3b28cde02542f81acce8783245430d
  2 | 5f6e9e12cd8592712e638016f4b1a2e73230ee40db498c0f0b1dc841 | 23e7c6cacb8383f878ad093b
  3 | 53ac2c1fa83c8f64603fe9568d883331                         | 7e969132fc656148b97b6a2ee8bc83c1
  4 | 4e3c2e4cb7542a45173a8dac939ddc4bc75202e342ebc769b0f5da2f | 8ef30f44c65480d12b650ab6b2b04245
(4 rows)
```

Note that rows two and three contain truncated values. This is because
PostgreSQL relies on nul-terminated strings and does not support nuls in its
strings.

Attempting to insert binary values into [TEXT] columns will succeed and work
as expected:

```sql
-- Insert via text columns:
TRUNCATE texts;
INSERT INTO texts
SELECT n, sha224(bytea('val'||n)), decode(md5('int'||n), 'hex')
  FROM generate_series(1, 4) n;

-- View the data.
SELECT c1, encode(c2::bytea, 'hex'), encode(c3::bytea, 'hex') FROM texts ORDER BY c1;
```

The text columns will be correct:

```pgdsql

 c1 |                          encode                          |              encode
----+----------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------
  1 | 1bf7f0cc821d31178616a55a8e0c52677735397cdde6f4153a9fd3d7 | ae3b28cde02542f81acce8783245430d
  2 | 5f6e9e12cd8592712e638016f4b1a2e73230ee40db498c0f0b1dc841 | 23e7c6cacb8383f878ad093b0027d72b
  3 | 53ac2c1fa83c8f64603fe9568d883331007d6281de330a4b5e728f9e | 7e969132fc656148b97b6a2ee8bc83c1
  4 | 4e3c2e4cb7542a45173a8dac939ddc4bc75202e342ebc769b0f5da2f | 8ef30f44c65480d12b650ab6b2b04245
(4 rows)
```

But reading them as [BYTEA] will not:

```pgsql
# SELECT * FROM bytes;
 c1 |                                                           c2                                                           |                                   c3
----+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------------------------------------------------------------
  1 | \x5c783162663766306363383231643331313738363136613535613865306335323637373733353339376364646536663431353361396664336437 | \x5c786165336232386364653032353432663831616363653837383332343534333064
  2 | \x5c783566366539653132636438353932373132653633383031366634623161326537333233306565343064623439386330663062316463383431 | \x5c783233653763366361636238333833663837386164303933623030323764373262
  3 | \x5c783533616332633166613833633866363436303366653935363864383833333331303037643632383164653333306134623565373238663965 | \x5c783765393639313332666336353631343862393762366132656538626338336331
  4 | \x5c783465336332653463623735343261343531373361386461633933396464633462633735323032653334326562633736396230663564613266 | \x5c783865663330663434633635343830643132623635306162366232623034323435
(4 rows)
```

> [!TIP]
> As a rule, only use [TEXT] columns for encoded strings and use [BYTEA]
> columns only for binary data, and never switch between them.

## Function and Operator Reference

### Functions

These functions provide the interface to query a ClickHouse database.

#### `clickhouse_raw_query`

```sql
SELECT clickhouse_raw_query(
    'CREATE TABLE t1 (x String) ENGINE = Memory',
    'host=localhost port=8123'
);
```

Connect to a ClickHouse service via its HTTP interface, execute a single
query, and disconnect. The optional second argument specifies a connection
string that defaults to `host=localhost port=8123`. The supported connection
parameters are:

*   `host`: The host to connect to; required.
*   `port`: The HTTP port to connect to; defaults to `8123` unless `host` is a
    ClickHouse Cloud host, in which case it defaults to `8443`
*   `dbname`: The name of the database to connect to.
*   `username`: The username to connect as; defaults to `default`
*   `password`: The password to use to authenticate; defaults to no password

Useful for queries that return no records, but queries that do return values
will be returned as a single text value:

```sql
SELECT clickhouse_raw_query(
    'SELECT schema_name, schema_owner from information_schema.schemata',
    'host=localhost port=8123'
);
```
```sql
      clickhouse_raw_query
---------------------------------
 INFORMATION_SCHEMA      default+
 default default                +
 git     default                +
 information_schema      default+
 system  default                +

(1 row)
```

### Pushdown Functions

All PostgreSQL builtin functions used in conditionals (`HAVING` and `WHERE`
clauses) to query ClickHouse foreign tables automatically push down to
ClickHouse with the same names and signatures. However, some have different
names or signatures and must be mapped to their equivalents. `pg_clickhouse`
maps the following functions:

*   `date_part`:
    *   `date_part('day')`: [toDayOfMonth](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toDayOfMonth)
    *   `date_part('doy')`: [toDayOfYear](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toDayOfYear)
    *   `date_part('dow')`: [toDayOfWeek](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toDayOfWeek)
    *   `date_part('year')`: [toYear](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toYear)
    *   `date_part('month')`: [toMonth](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toMonth)
    *   `date_part('hour')`: [toHour](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toHour)
    *   `date_part('minute')`: [toMinute](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toMinute)
    *   `date_part('second')`: [toSecond](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toSecond)
    *   `date_part('quarter')`: [toQuarter](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toQuarter)
    *   `date_part('isoyear')`: [toISOYear](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toISOYear)
    *   `date_part('week')`: [toISOYear](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toISOWeek)
    *   `date_part('epoch')`: [toISOYear](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toUnixTimestamp)
*   `date_trunc`:
    *   `date_trunc('week')`: [toMonday](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toMonday)
    *   `date_trunc('second')`: [toStartOfSecond](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toStartOfSecond)
    *   `date_trunc('minute')`: [toStartOfMinute](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toStartOfMinute)
    *   `date_trunc('hour')`: [toStartOfHour](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toStartOfHour)
    *   `date_trunc('day')`: [toStartOfDay](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toStartOfDay)
    *   `date_trunc('month')`: [toStartOfMonth](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toStartOfMonth)
    *   `date_trunc('quarter')`: [toStartOfQuarter](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toStartOfQuarter)
    *   `date_trunc('year')`: [toStartOfYear](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#toStartOfYear)
*   `array_position`: [indexOf](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/array-functions#indexOf)
*   `btrim`: [trimBoth](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/string-functions#trimboth)
*   `strpos`: [position](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/string-search-functions#position)
*   `regexp_like`: [match](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/string-search-functions#match)
*   `md5`: [MD5](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/hash-functions#MD5)
*   `to_timestamp(float8)`: [fromUnixTimestamp](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/date-time-functions#fromUnixTimestamp)

### Custom Functions

These custom functions created by `pg_clickhouse` provide foreign query
pushdown for select ClickHouse functions with no PostgreSQL equivalents. If
any of these functions cannot be pushed down they will raise an exception.

*   [dictGet](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/ext-dict-functions#dictget-dictgetordefault-dictgetornull)

### Pushdown Casts

pg_clickhouse pushes down casts such as `CAST(x AS bigint)` for compatible
data types. For incompatible types the pushdown will fail; if `x` in this
example is a ClickHouse `UInt64`, ClickHouse will refuse to cast the value.

In order to push down casts to incompatible data types, pg_clickhouse provides
the following functions. They raise an exception in PostgreSQL if they are not
pushed down.

*   [toUInt8](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/type-conversion-functions#touint8)
*   [toUInt16](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/type-conversion-functions#touint16)
*   [toUInt32](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/type-conversion-functions#touint32)
*   [toUInt64](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/type-conversion-functions#touint64)
*   [toUInt128](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/functions/type-conversion-functions#touint128)

### Pushdown Aggregates

These PostgreSQL aggregate functions pushdown to ClickHouse.

*   [array_agg](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/grouparray)
*   [avg](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/avg)
*   [count](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/count)
*   [min](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/min)
*   [max](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/max)

### Custom Aggregates

These custom aggregate functions created by `pg_clickhouse` provide foreign
query pushdown for select ClickHouse aggregate functions with no PostgreSQL
equivalents. If any of these functions cannot be pushed down they will raise
an exception.

*   [argMax](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/argmax)
*   [argMin](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/argmin)
*   [uniq](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/uniq)
*   [uniqCombined](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/uniqcombined)
*   [uniqCombined64](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/uniqcombined64)
*   [uniqExact](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/uniqexact)
*   [uniqHLL12](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/uniqhll12)
*   [uniqTheta](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/uniqthetasketch)
*   [quantile](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/quantile)
*   [quantileExact](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/quantileexact)

### Pushdown Ordered Set Aggregates

These [ordered-set aggregate functions] map to ClickHouse [Parametric
aggregate functions] by passing their *direct argument* as a parameter and
their `ORDER BY` expressions as arguments. For example, this PostgreSQL query:

```sql
SELECT percentile_cont(0.25) WITHIN GROUP (ORDER BY a) FROM t1;
```

Maps to this ClickHouse query:

```sql
SELECT quantile(0.25)(a) FROM t1;
```

Note that the non-default `ORDER BY` suffixes `DESC` and `NULLS FIRST`
are not supported and will raise an error.

*   `percentile_cont(double)`: [quantile](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/quantile)
*   `quantile(double)`: [quantile](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/quantile)
*   `quantileExact(double)`: [quantileExact](https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/reference/quantileexact)

## Authors

*   [David E. Wheeler](https://justatheory.com/)

## Copyright

Copyright (c) 2025-2026, ClickHouse.

  [foreign data wrapper]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/fdwhandler.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: Writing a Foreign Data Wrapper"
  [Docker image]: https://github.com/ClickHouse/pg_clickhouse/pkgs/container/pg_clickhouse
    "Latest version on Docker Hub"
  [ClickHouse]: https://clickhouse.com/clickhouse
  [Semantic Versioning]: https://semver.org/spec/v2.0.0.html
    "Semantic Versioning 2.0.0"
  [DDL]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_definition_language
    "Wikipedia: Data definition language"
  [CREATE EXTENSION]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-createextension.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: CREATE EXTENSION"
  [ALTER EXTENSION]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-alterextension.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: ALTER EXTENSION"
  [DROP EXTENSION]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-dropextension.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: DROP EXTENSION"
  [CREATE SERVER]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-createserver.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: CREATE SERVER"
  [ALTER SERVER]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-alterserver.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: ALTER SERVER"
  [DROP SERVER]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-dropserver.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: DROP SERVER"
  [CREATE USER MAPPING]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-createusermapping.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: CREATE USER MAPPING"
  [ALTER USER MAPPING]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-alterusermapping.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: ALTER USER MAPPING"
  [DROP USER MAPPING]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-dropusermapping.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: DROP USER MAPPING"
  [IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-importforeignschema.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: IMPORT FOREIGN SCHEMA"
  [CREATE FOREIGN TABLE]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-createforeigntable.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: CREATE FOREIGN TABLE"
  [table engine]: https://clickhouse.com/docs/engines/table-engines
    "ClickHouse Docs: Table engines"
  [AggregateFunction Type]: https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/data-types/aggregatefunction
    "ClickHouse Docs: AggregateFunction Type"
  [SimpleAggregateFunction Type]: https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/data-types/simpleaggregatefunction
    "ClickHouse Docs: SimpleAggregateFunction Type"
  [ALTER FOREIGN TABLE]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-alterforeigntable.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: ALTER FOREIGN TABLE"
  [DROP FOREIGN TABLE]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-dropforeigntable.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: DROP FOREIGN TABLE"
  [DML]: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_manipulation_language
    "Wikipedia: Data manipulation language"
  [EXPLAIN]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-explain.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: EXPLAIN"
  [SELECT]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-select.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: SELECT"
  [PREPARE]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-prepare.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: PREPARE"
  [EXECUTE]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-execute.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: EXECUTE"
  [DEALLOCATE]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-deallocate.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: DEALLOCATE"
  [PREPARE]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-prepare.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: PREPARE"
  [INSERT]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-insert.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: INSERT"
  [COPY]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-copy.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: COPY"
  [LOAD]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-load.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: LOAD"
  [SET]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-set.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: SET"
  [ALTER ROLE]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-alterrole.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: ALTER ROLE"
  [shared library preloading]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/runtime-config-client.html#RUNTIME-CONFIG-CLIENT-PRELOAD
    "PostgreSQL Docs: Shared Library Preloading"
  [ordered-set aggregate functions]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/functions-aggregate.html#FUNCTIONS-ORDEREDSET-TABLE
  [Parametric aggregate functions]: https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/aggregate-functions/parametric-functions
  [ClickHouse settings]: https://clickhouse.com/docs/operations/settings/settings
    "ClickHouse Docs: Session Settings"
  [dollar quoting]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-syntax-lexical.html#SQL-SYNTAX-DOLLAR-QUOTING
    "PostgreSQL Docs: Dollar-Quoted String Constants"
  [PREPARE notes]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/sql-prepare.html#SQL-PREPARE-NOTES
    "PostgreSQL Docs: PREPARE notes"
  [query parameters]: https://clickhouse.com/docs/guides/developer/stored-procedures-and-prepared-statements#alternatives-to-prepared-statements-in-clickhouse
    "ClickHouse Docs: Alternatives to prepared statements in ClickHouse"
  [underlying bug]: https://github.com/ClickHouse/ClickHouse/issues/85847
    "ClickHouse/ClickHouse#85847 Some queries in a multipart forms don't read settings"
  [fixed]: https://github.com/ClickHouse/ClickHouse/pull/85570
    "ClickHouse/ClickHouse#85570 fix HTTP with multipart"
  [BYTEA]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/datatype-binary.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: Binary Data Types"
  [String]: https://clickhouse.com/docs/sql-reference/data-types/string
    "ClickHouse Docs: String"
  [TEXT]: https://www.postgresql.org/docs/current/datatype-character.html
    "PostgreSQL Docs: Character Types"
